THE SEARCH FOR IMMORTALITY: THE PATH TO ENLIGHTENMENT OR PRODUCT OF ABSOLUTE POWER OF CHINESE DYANSTIES
William Yixuan Wu
Northwestern University
willwu2027@u.northwestern.edu
ABSTRACT
In classical Chinese Taoist philosophy, the concept of death is embraced to be a natural part of human life, and the pursuit of life is to be enlightened and virtuous. History records that the Chinese emperor who embodied these virtues supplanted others who were morally corrupt or unfit to rule in dynastic cycles. Furthermore, it was believed that all rulers were given power through the mandate of heaven, to govern under the supervision of the gods to be good leaders or risk losing their power. However, the constant obsession with searching for immortality or the elixir of life has indicated that many of these rulers have prioritized their selfish wellbeing over all else, with wide-ranging ramifications for the development of contemporary Chinese culture.
Keywords
Ancient China, Chinese Philosophy, Chinese History, Chinese Religion
INTRODUCTION
In contemporary Chinese society, a saying goes, “even a good death is not as good as a wretched existence.” In other words, there lay a cultural value in the act of not dying and simply living, even if it signifies suffering. It appears as if the subject of death always carries a negative connotation except in the case of a “bai xi shi,” or a cheerful white event where the death results from aging[1]. Therefore, the Chinese seem to believe in prolonging life before death, even if it means a life without fulfillment. In juxtaposition to many western cultures, where there is value to the natural progression of death, such as the belief that death leads to the afterlife, the general Chinese belief seems to be that life is simply more valuable than death. This leads to the question, at what point did the Chinese culture begin to fear death as a threat to their existence instead of embracing it as a natural life stage?
When examining philosophical values deep rooted in Ancient Chinese history, it is found that death was not always a topic of fear. On the contrary, classical Taoist beliefs and other significant schools of thought point to the belief that living a fulfilling life is more important than avoiding the inevitable and living a life with purpose. However, as time progressed and various dynasties rose and fell, the actions of many prominent Chinese emperors led to the rise in the pursuit of eternal life. Specifically, the first emperor Qin Shi Huang was one of the most famous emperors in history for his conquest to find the elixir of life, which led to the prosecution of countless scholars and the burning of literature and records. It would also set a dangerous precedence for many dynastic rulers following, who would also embark on journeys to find a way into immortality.
The actions of these emperors also call into question their intentions and whether they genuinely represented their people in their best interests. In dynastic China, the emperors were believed to be given a Tianming, or a “mandate from heaven” to rule [2]. Essentially, they rule on behalf of the gods, carrying the great responsibility to make good decisions for the people. The popular explanation for why dynasties often changed over the centuries was because they had lost the blessings from heaven.With their sacred responsibility in mind, did the conquest of these emperors truly represent the need of the people? Were they paragons of the heavenly virtues, or did they commit numerous atrocities to extend their own life for selfish reasons?
In this paper, I analyze historical records and books on Ancient Chinese philosophy to argue that prominent Chinese emperors from the Qin dynasty and Ming dynasty were influenced by classical Chinese philosophy, including Confucianism and Taoism, to pursue immortality. The importance is to determine whether Qin Shi Huang’s first pursuit of immortality negatively affected future rulers to commit similar atrocities.
- The ancient Chinese philosophical view death and pursuit during life
- The pursuit of immortality by Qin Dynasty Emperor Qin Shi Huang and Ming Dynasty Emperor Jia Jing
The analysis of the origins of the belief surrounding death and immortality in prominent ancient Chinese culture, how the roles of the emperor have been changed and altered, and lastly, the actions of various rulers lead to a final verdict on the lasting impact of their actions on the contemporary Chinese culture. The reasoning for choosing the specific two emperors is due to the extensive time difference to display how even as times have changed, the pursuit of immortality remained constant in Ancient China.
- The ancient Chinese philosophical view of death and pursuit during life
To popular scholarly belief, ancient Chinese Taoism originated around 300 BCE from the famous writings of Fung Yu Lan, Chuang Tzu, and Lao Tzu for their collections of Taoist writings [3]. While religion has changed over time and is sometimes contradictory in many different materials, there are a few concepts that are permanently fixed. Firstly, the tao means “road” or the “path.” First referenced in the very first chapter of Tao Te Ching, written by Lao Tzu. Next, tao is explained as the way of nature – a fundamental principle underlying the natural world – and harmony for how humans should interact with the universe [4]. Confucianism and Taoism are the most long-standing schools of thought that persisted throughout Chinese history from the unification of China during the Qin dynasty until the end of the Ming dynasty. Both share similar views on life and death.
While Confucianism is its independent school of thought, it shares many beliefs with Taoism. For example, Confucius references the same principle of the tao in The Analects, where he describes the tao as also an entity, where a person may “possess the tao,” or “lack the tao” [5]. These philosophical writings generally believe that the tao is the universe’s flow that keeps the world balanced and ordered. Generally, while interpretation may vary from authors in various eras, the central concept is that Taoism strongly believes in respecting the natural world to bring order to the universe.
The idea of tao is central to the Taoist beliefs and would be further expanded in Chuang Tzu. Importantly it states the importance of allowing the universe to run its course to decide the fate and the path for all. Tao is believed to be “indivisible” and “unchanging.” Therefore, there is no point in trying to take more tao from one place to another[6]. Even when dealing with complex subjects such as death, Chuang Tzu has always believed that death is simply a natural process of life. Chuang Tzu says that all things are one with the tao, so one must realize that “the parts of his body mean no more than so much dust and dirt, and death and life, end and beginning, are no more to him than a succession of day and night.” [7]
In the Tao Te Ching, losing the fear of death was an important step to view it as a natural transformation. Chuang Tzu shows indifference to death and believes that understanding it alleviates human suffering. When Chuang Tzu’s wife died, his friend Hui Shih wanted to console him. Instead of mourning, Chuang Tzu began singing and celebrated the event. Chuang Tzu describes his thoughts in the following:
“When she first died, I certainly mourned just like everyone else! However, I then thought back to her birth and the very roots of her being before she was born. Indeed, not just before she was born but before the time when her body was created. Not just before her body was created but before the very origin of her life’s breath. Out of all of this, through the wonderful mystery of change she was given her life’s breath. Her life’s breath wrought a transformation and she had a body. Her body wrought a transformation and she was born. Nowthere is yet another transformation and she is dead. She is like the four seasons in the way that spring, summer, autumn and winter follow each other. She is now at peace, lying in her chamber, but if I were to sob and cry it would certainly appear that I could not comprehend the ways of destiny. This is why I stopped” [8].
The emphasis on the cycle of change is critical to describe the classical Chinese philosophical beliefs on death, as there is rarely any suggestion of the afterlife or any form of personal immortality. Death was a part of the cycle of change. There is no difference between the living and the dead as mortality only makes sorrow because man cannot free themselves from their categorization of life. However, Chuang Tzu does offer a metaphysical view of the concept of immortality. While there is no physical escape from death in the physical sense, if the man can understand nature’s way and embrace the tao, he lives as a part of the tao. Chuang Tzu says that after death, his left arm becomes a rooster. Man may die, but his essence as part of the universe lives on forever [9].
Mainly, Chuang Tzu describes the “butterfly dream” where one achieves the state of immortal being where they give up their thoughts and fears of death and becomes a part of the universe.
“Once upon a time, I, Chuang Tzu, dreamt that I was a butterfly, flitting around and enjoying myself. I had no idea I was Chuang Tzu. Then suddenly, I woke up and was Chuang Tzu again. But I could not tell, had I been Chuang Tzu dreaming I was a butterfly, or a butterfly dreaming I was now Chuang Tzu? However, there must be some sort of difference between Chuang Tzu and a butterfly! We call this the transformation of things” [10]
The state Chuang Tzu describes is one where he becomes a part of nature and is immortal in spirit to the universe as he feels connected to the universe. In Taoist materials, it was also believed that “spirit immortality” and “longevity” are therefore essential and synonymous in the sense that if one had to fully realize one’s given life span on earth to attain the state of mind where he can fully ascend into this being after his body passes away [11]. Essentially, the body will eventually die no matter what, so physical immortality may be impossible to reach. However, achieving a mental state beyond being will allow them to become immortal in a sense, but extending life makes it better to reach this state.
From the earliest philosophical Taoist writings, most scholars, including Lao Tzu, Chuang Tzu, and Confucius, embraced death as a natural part of life, a way of the tao. As such, they viewed death as a natural process. However, one crucial development of Taoism began through some of the ambiguity of the earlier writings, especially regarding the concept of immorality and the afterlife. Famous French Sinologist Henri Maspero points out that there seemed to be a “corruption” in the Taoist philosophy that began more deviating from the original beliefs on death as a natural cause but became more obsessive over the concept of physical immortality [12].
An important concept that began rising around the same time in 100 BCE was the concept of the Hsien and the introduction of the Hsien Tao (The way of the Hsien). Many scholars speculate that a different branch of belief arose during the Christian Era [13]. Instead of embracing death as a natural process, it strived to achieve one goal – the pursuit of immortality. Many scholars refer to this branch of Taoism as religious Taoism. They believed that true immortality was to become a mythical being named the Hsien, where one is forever ageless and deathless. With the introduction of mythical gods and immortal Hsien god-like deities, this branch gradually combined Buddhist practices to become a more religious belief. Many scholars believe that religious Taoism was a separate branch of belief that became fused with philosophical Taoism, as seen by its conflicting beliefs on how to live life and pursue immortality. Philosophical Taoism saw death as a natural event, whereas religious Taoism believed in pursuing physical immortality to stop death. No mentions of any methods of immortality or Hsien existed until the Qin dynasty, and many believe these were not a part of the original Taoist beliefs. [14]. Nonetheless, the two branches eventually became one common belief.
An essential characteristic of the development of the religiosity beliefs is the evolution of many practices aimed at achieving immortality—namely, the popularization of Taoist alchemy. There are two forms of alchemy, external alchemy, which includes breathing techniques, sexual practices, and production of the “elixir of immortality,” and internal alchemy, which includes visualization, dieting, and other self-control practices. There are extensive records of these practices from the 3rd to 6th centuries. For example, according to the “Book of the Nine Elixirs,” a collection of Taoist alchemy written by Taoist Anthropology professor Fabrizio Pregadio at the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, many believed that “When a man ingests the ‘divine elixirs,’ he becomes a divine immortal and transcends the generation of mortals [15]. Among these elixirs were various herbs, medicines, and metals such as gold, mercury, and jade. Scholars often attribute Lao Tzu and Zhang Daoling as the first creators of the tradition to seek immortality through alchemy.
Thus, ultimately while Taoist philosophers initially believed that death is inevitable and that living a great life of virtues will lead to an immortal spirit with the tao, the Taoist view on death gradually evolved and combined religious beliefs of immortal Hsien, leading to methods of alchemy to try and extend one’s life to become physically immortal.
- The pursuit of immortality by emperor Qin Shi Huang and Jia Jing
With the often-contrasting views on immortality in Taoist philosophy, Chinese emperors have often used different interpretations to justify their pursuit of immortality. I believe that Chinese emperors misappropriated Confucianism and Taoism, using legalism to reshape how they ruled with absolute power over their people.
The mystique of the Chinese emperors has always originated from a unique position within Chinese society, where they are both made the leaders of the country and characters of traditional worshipping. In Ancient China, the ruler was the head of the royal family, the state, the judiciary, and the religious hierarchy, which means they were treated with high reverence. The title of tianzi, or the “son of heaven,” originated from King Wen of the Zhou in 1050 BCE, who claimed that he and his ancestors were given the right to govern by the heavens [16]. However, it does not mean that the emperors were inherently chosen to have an unchallengeable right to govern. Instead, they were given rights to rule on behalf of the gods and a great responsibility to make good decisions for the people instead of their selfish needs.
Many Chinese sayings believed that China would suffer great natural disasters, such as droughts and floods, and he would lose his right to govern if the ruler did not represent the people properly. Therefore, many Confucian scholars argued that rulers had to answer to the people; in turn, the people can rightfully hold their rulers accountable. In the Taoist school of thought, it was also believed that if a ruler had lost their balance and harmony with the natural world, they would lose their divine favor. This was often why when rulers were dethroned and dynasties changed, it was believed that it was in the will of the heavens. One particular saying recorded by Hsun Tzu summarizes their belief at the time:
“The prince is the boat, the common people are the water. The water can support the boat, or the water can capsize the boat” [17].
The ideals of the mandate from heaven were deeply rooted in the decision-making of emperors in all dynasties, where few emperors could afford to ignore the collective moral expectations of their people. Therefore, it was of the utmost importance for the role of the Chinese emperor to govern with great care towards following the will of his people and acting as a paragon of traditional virtues. Furthermore, it was vital for them to preserve society’s morality while also implementing the most significant policies to benefit their people. Otherwise, they would lose their favor with the gods and heaven. With these contexts in mind, an analysis of actions by various Chinese emperors will show that while these morals were followed, many often prioritized their selfish pursuits over the good of the people.
Qin Shi Huang is known as the first federal emperor in ancient Chinese. His achievements are undeniable. He changed the traditional political system and unified China with multiple ethnic groups, laying the foundation for the feudal kingdoms for hundreds of years. However, he was not the perfect leader. In the shiji, written by grand historian Sima Qian, he notes numerous atrocities Qin Shi Huang committed to pursuing his own beliefs of immortality. Most importantly, Qin Shi Huang was responsible for the prosecution of scholars and burning of Confucian books, establishing legalism as the prominent religion, and various attempts at creating immortality.
In shiji, Sima Qian describes Qin Shi Huang as a ruthless leader who used various tactics to solidify his power as a leader and attempted to assimilate his beliefs to the rest of the public. Many of his policies focused on applying violence to eradicate those with different views and condemned Qin Shi Huang’s actions towards prosecuting scholars and restricting Confucian religious rituals [18]. Many scholars believe that Qin Shi Huang punished these scholars not because he disapproved of their beliefs but because he wanted to establish his dynasty and family as the most potent entities in China.
In shiji, it was recorded that one of Qin Shi Huang’s chancellors Li said that “I, your servant, propose that all historians’ records other than those of Qin’s be burned. With the exception of the academics whose duty includes possessing books, if anyone under heaven has copies of the Shi Jing [Classic of Poetry], the Shujing [Classic of History], or the writings of the hundred schools of philosophy, they shall deliver them (the books) to the governor or the commandant for burning. Anyone who dares to discuss the Shi Jing or the Classic of History shall be publicly executed” [19].
Not only did he punish opposing beliefs, but he also created a mandate for the rise of legalist ideologies. Legalism is often compared to modern social sciences because it created a system of guidelines on how a country should be run. Generally, they believed that power should be devoid of moral considerations and that there needs to be a powerful state with a solid army to rule the land [20]. It is speculated that under this mindset, Qin Shi Huang authorized the prosecution of scholars to establish peace and order in his state.
Han Feizi is an essential piece of Chinese philosophy text written by Han Fei, laying the foundations for legalism’s philosophical studies. It is foundational to Qin Shi Huang’s beliefs and the Qin Dynasty’s foundations. It can be said that although the school of thought of legalism is based on Taoist teachings and Confucian ideals, after the Qin dynasty, the Confucian ideals of how to organize society, such as ruling without laws, were never realized. Nevertheless, legalism was so influential during Qin Shi Huang’s reign that legalism became how numerous subsequent dynasties arranged their civil and administrative structures and paved the justifications for the emperor’s rule.
For example, in chapter thirteen of Han Feizi, he says:
“The sage who makes laws in the state is always acting contrary to the prevailing opinions of the age, but is in accord with Tao (道) and Teh (德)” (聖人為法國者，必逆於世，而順於道德) [21] [22].
Han Fei establishes the difference between Tao and De. In contrast, his conceptualization of tao is harmonious with the cosmos (the same as Taoism). Still, de or the way to act is rendered the ability to create laws and means of governance to the enlightened ruler. Established by the school of legalism explicitly establishes the enlightened ruler’s ability to create these rules of governance in accordance with the tao that runs contrary to the prevailing opinions of the time. Han Fei establishes the exclusive rights of the ruler of China to create laws that go against the public and the ability to interpret Taoism as they wish.
There are two ways to interpret this passage in the legalist belief that either the enlightened ruler must be the one who interprets the tao and makes it into the rules of governance even if it is contrary to the people’s beliefs. The second way is that legalism gives the ruler absolute power to create any law even if it goes against common beliefs of the tao, essentially granting them absolute power to not only redefine tao but also create any laws as he intends.
Qin Shi Huang used the legalist interpretation of power to justify committing countless selfish acts in pursuit of immortality. Legalism ultimately justified his conduct as emperor as he was the ultimate authority of both philosophy and law. Many sources have pointed to the fact that Qin Shi Huang used his unprecedented state power to pursue immortality, which led to his downfall. Late in his life, Qin Shi Huang feared death and desperately sought the fabled elixir of life in Taoist belief despite him banning and condemning many traditional Taoist practices. In one case, he attempted to find the legendary island of Mount Penglai, which is believed to possess the elixir of life. As a result, he sent an expedition force with hundreds of men on ships, who never returned, perhaps since they may be executed for their failures [23].
He would frequently execute scholars to find those with magical powers returning to life after death. He believed that if they had powers of immortality, they were able to resurrect themselves after death[24]. He was often a victim of fraudulent alchemists who claimed to have found the elixir of life. One time, after discovering that two alchemists had deceived him, he ordered 460 scholars to be buried alive at Xianyang. The event was detailed in chapter 6 of the shiji [25]. It was alleged that one of the major contributing factors to Qin Shi Huang’s short reign as an emperor, as he died at the age of 49, was due to alchemical elixir poisoning from consuming mercury pills made by his physicians [26]. Therefore, it is evident that Qin Shi Huang often used his immense power to seek immortality and set a dangerous precedence for future emperors. The importance of the manifestation of legalism in the Qin dynasty was that it justified the brutal rules of Qin Shi Huang and his quest for immortality.
Even after the fall of the Qin dynasty, legalism would prevail as the foundational principle for future dynasties. Despite efforts by the Han dynasty to ban and discredit the teachings of legalism, subsequent emperors of numerous dynasties would use the conceptualization of the absolute monarch outlined in legalism to empower their rule and justify their behaviors. From the period between the Qin dynasty and the Ming dynasty, many other emperors have also sought the elixir of life. This includes emperor Wu of the Han dynasty and five emperors of Tang dynasties who were recorded to have died from alchemical poisoning[27]. Thus, even with thousands of years of academic and scientific progress, the various emperors of China never stopped their pursuit. One prominent example of these emperors is the actions of emperor Jia Jing of the Ming dynasty. He ruled China from 1521 to 1567, more than a thousand years after Qin Shi Huang. Like many of his predecessors, Jia Jing was obsessed with the mythical Taoist concept of immortality and used alchemy.
Jia Jing’s first pursuits of immortality began as an interest in rituals and practices to increase fertility. As early as 1523, many court officials complained that he would regularly miss lessons because he was too focused on making offerings at Taoist ceremonies. However, his initial interest quickly dove into an obsession as he was introduced to an influential Taoist master named Yiian Chieh, who had won favor with him and began introducing him to methods of alchemy, and the idea of the elixir of immortality. Finally, in September 1540, the emperor informed the court that he intended to seclude himself for several years to pursue immortality. When an official pointed out that it was nonsense, he was executed. [28].
The emperor would also begin to create his elixir of life. Notably, he regularly digested something called the “red lead,” a substance made from the menstrual blood of female virgins. He would also regularly collect young girls to be tormented sexually. This would eventually lead to an event named palace plot of renyin year, where a group of palace women attempted to strangle him but failed due to the years of abuse [29]. However, instead of treating it as a warning, the emperor continued his pursuit of immortality. In 1552 he selected 800 girls between the age of eight and fourteen for palace sexual services, and in 1555, he selected 180 more, all virgins under the age of ten, to refine his elixir. Eventually, Jia Jing passed away in 1567, noted by historians as possibly due to mercury overdose [30].
Like the reign of Qin Shi Huang, both emperors were obsessed with the concept of physical immortality. As a result, they often abused their people and disregarded the morality given by the mandate of heaven. As exemplified by their frequent prosecution of scholars, unjust executions of any opposition, and the many instances of violent and unethical practices to prolong their lives. Thus, it is evident that while these leaders were given the mandate to be spiritual leaders that exemplified traditional virtues, they were obsessed with their wellbeing and pursued immortality to benefit themselves.
Ultimately, the emperors used legalism to justify their search for immortality despite it being a bastardization of the concept of enlightenment. It is evident that through their relentless searching for immortality, they have impacted Chinese culture by implanting the idea that an immortal being is more important than living a virtuous life. Instead of using their power correctly, various leaders often disregarded their heaven-given responsibilities and justified atrocities with legalist beliefs to solidify their absolute power.
CONCLUSION
From the beginnings of classical Chinese philosophy embodied through the writings of Taoist philosophers, the concept of morality was outlined as a part of the cycle of life and death and must be regarded with indifference as a natural transformation. One strives in life to achieve a connection to the universe. However, Chinese emperors who clothed themselves with the appearance of virtues and authority from heaven often disregarded their responsibilities and rules to pursue physical immortality through immoral and unethical means. This blatant hypocrisy of the Chinese ruling class demonstrates a dynamic in Chinese culture where powerful rulers often disregard their people’s wellbeing, misappropriate traditional beliefs, and abuse their power to prolong their life span.
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[1] Yu Xu, “Death and Dying in the Chinese Culture: Implications for Health Care Practice.”
[2] Mark Cartwright, “Chinese Emperor.”
[3] H. G. Creel, “What Is Taoism?”
[4] Robert Eno, Dao De Jing.
[5] Confucius, The Analects.
[6] MARTIN PALMER, ELIZABETH BREUILLY, and JAY RAMSAY, The Book of Chuang Tzu.
[7] MARTIN PALMER, ELIZABETH BREUILLY, and JAY RAMSAY.
[8] MARTIN PALMER, ELIZABETH BREUILLY, and JAY RAMSAY.
[9] Bernard Down, “Death in Classical Daoist Thought.”
[10] MARTIN PALMER, ELIZABETH BREUILLY, and JAY RAMSAY, The Book of Chuang Tzu.
[11] Livia Kohn, “Eternal Life in Taoist Mysticism.”
[12] Henri Maspero, Taoism and Chinese Religion.
[13] H. G. Creel, “What Is Taoism?”
[14] Henri Maspero, Taoism and Chinese Religion.
[15] Fabrizio Pregadio, Book of the Nine Elixirs.
[16] Paul Ropp, “Heritage of China: Contemporary Perspectives on Chinese Civilization.”
[17] Luke Glanville, “Retaining the Mandate of Heaven: Sovereign Accountability in Ancient China.”
[18] Zhuoxuan Wang, “Rethinking on the Historical Evaluation of Qin Shi Huang Based on Shiji.”
[19] Sima Qian, Shiji: Records of the Grand Historian.
[20] Yuri Pines, “Legalism in Chinese Philosophy.”
[21] Burton Watson, Han Feizi.
[22] Han Fei, The Project Gutenberg EBook of Han Fei Zi.
[23] Ong Siew Chey, China Condensed: 5000 Years of History & Culture.
[24] Ong Siew Chey.
[25] Sima Qian, Shiji: Records of the Grand Historian.
[26] David Curtis Wright, The History of China.
[27] Ho Peng Yoke, Li, Qi, and Shu: An Introduction to Science and Civilization in China.
[28] Twitchett and Mote, The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 7: The Ming Dynasty.
[29] Hsu Cho-yun, The Transcendental and the Mundane: Chinese Cultural Values in Everyday Life.
[30] Twitchett and Mote, The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 7: The Ming Dynasty.
William Wu 
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