Prompt: You are on an expedition to found a colony on Mars, when from a nearby crater, a group of Martians suddenly emerges. They seem eager to communicate, but they’re the impatient kind and demand you represent the human race in one song, image, memory, proof, or other idea. What do you share with them to show that humanity is worth their time?
If given a chance, I would show the Martians game 6 of the 1997 chess match between World Chess Champion Garry Kasparov and IBM’s deep blue supercomputer. I would first preface the video by introducing the rules of chess with a physical chess board and accompanying display screens that demonstrate the components of this match, the players, and the game’s stakes.
The game of chess is an excellent representation of humanity’s pursuits; it’s a timeless game of recreation, strategy, and mind games played by hundreds of millions of people worldwide. It can be played between two opponents of any ethnic background, gender, age, or belief (and indeed, played by computers and artificial intelligence). Easy access to the game of chess and its ability to unite humanity to appreciate it helps paint an egalitarian picture of human society.
The rules of chess can be explained pictorially and demonstrated by moving the pieces on a physical or electronic board, bypassing language barriers and the risk of miscommunication. It can also stand wholly on its own rather than relying on existing knowledge of human society, culture, and norms. Learning about the rules of chess and the pieces on the board also demonstrates historical artifacts and information about human society. The pieces– the king, queen, knights, bishops, rooks, and pawns– represent a microcosm of a medieval agrarian society.
The King and Queen, essential pieces of the board, demonstrate a patriarchal feudal hierarchy, the gendered existence of humanity, and its reproduction process.
The bishops highlight the importance of organized religion and theology.
The knights represent knight-errant culture and chivalry and its attached moral idealism.
The rooks (or towers) show the importance of strategic castles and sieges and their part in the human history of conquest and kingdoms.
The pawns, themselves the least valuable pieces at the start of the game, can transform into any pieces (excluding the king) by reaching the end of the board, illustrating possibilities of class mobility and achievement.
Game 6 of the 1997 chess match is of particular interest as it is the second match between world champion Garry Kasparov and Deep Blue, with the World Champion having defeated Deep Blue 4-2 in a previous 1996 match. Garry Kasparov is one of the longest-reigning champions in chess history and a great ambassador for the sport, whereas Deep Blue is an example of the emergence of artificial intelligence in human society, a technological feat that no doubt will shape the course of human history with broad implications in philosophy, academia, and popular culture. It was made possible only through the preceding era’s developments in science and mathematics. In this game, Kasparov and Deep Blue are tied 2 ½ – 2 ½.
Kasparov made the uncharacteristic move: Pawn to E6 on move eight, challenging Deep Blue to capture the pawn E6 with a Knight. Kasparov believed at the time that computers were calculating beings with no appreciation for the strategy and position involved in chess. Thus, they would not be interested in a move that lost material advantage for no appreciable gain. However, in the game’s deciding moment, Deep Blue accepted the challenge and captured, trading a knight for a pawn. This led to a position-based end game where Kasparov was forced to resign just nine moves later. The dramatic moment illustrates the first time an artificial intelligence defeated the best human player in a game of thought in human history.
Having shown the Martians this game, I would invite them to play a game of chess. I believe this is a great conversation starter and diplomacy and could also help us understand each other’s ability to interpret complex problems and strategies and lead to deeper cultural connections. In addition, it provides a window for the Martians and us to understand each other’s tendencies and behaviors that few other methods could. The game of chess could also be played between humans and any alien race regardless of size, background, genetic makeup, or brain capacity. On top of that, it’s great fun, and I’m sure everyone needs a break from tensions after establishing first contact.
(Received commendation in the John Locke Essay competition out of 775 submissions)
William Yixuan Wu – St. Andrew’s College, Northwestern University
Introduction
In Jean-Paul Sartre’s Being and Nothingness, Sartre points out that with contemporary advancements in fields of science, “modern thought has realized considerable progress by reducing the existent to the series of appearances which manifest it.”[1] Monist views based on the conceptions of materialism have dominated philosophical and social discussions in the developed world among everyday people and intellectuals alike. The prevailing scientific theories point to a deterministic world, where everything, including human thoughts and decisions, can be deconstructed into a series of causes and effects.
This begs the question: Can human beings be judged along the lines of normative ethics on the decisions they make if the world is wholly deterministic? It also calls into question the nature and existence of free will. Some essential clarifications are needed. This essay will not focus on the denotation and attribution of responsibility to individuals given the above circumstances. It will instead focus on the critical question that 20th-century philosophy often contends: if free will can exist within a monist, materialist, and deterministic world, what are the subsequent ethical implications of this realization?
To answer this question, we will investigate whether individual persons can be held responsible for their actions when we deconstruct an individual into a system of preferences and traits – which determinists today support is the predictable consequence of genetics and the environment. We can break down this argument into three major concepts:
Normative Ethics
Nature versus Nurture
Free Will
Firstly, the analysis of normative ethics breaks down how individual actions should be evaluated. The philosophical tradition has favored one of two methodologies: focusing on the results of the actions (consequentialism) or the intentions of the individual (deontology). It becomes evident that regardless of the stance taken, neither methodology negates the individual’s responsibility.
Secondly, examining the age-old question of nature versus nurture through the fierce debates between rationalist and empiricist philosophers in the time of Immanuel Kant with the introduction of evolutionary and genetic theory.
Lastly, the question of the existence of free will in a presupposed wholly deterministic world, on which we will take a compatibilist view.
Ultimately, I argue that individuals are responsible for their actions and that we must resist the (often misconstrued) nihilistic attempts to deconstruct human actions.
Normative Ethics
Immanuel Kant’s 1785 Groundwork of Metaphysics of Morals introduces the idea of categorical imperatives that became the central philosophical concept of deontology.[2] He argues that sentient beings derive their duties from their moral “maxims,” which are imperative commandments of reasons originating from inner motivations.
As such, under Kant’s view of the categorical imperative, even if we are simply compelled by certain imperatives or commandments of reason, that can still be a basis for ethics and moral philosophy.
Aside from Kant’s rejection of the treatment of a person as merely a means to an end, noting that “act so as to treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of another, at all times also as an end, and not only as a means.”[3] The conception of a priori imperatives also allows the valuation of the validity of ethical arguments on a pre-existing system of necessity or preference (such as our genetic inheritance). Despite the apparent reduction of moral agency for the individual, we can consider his inheritance and preferences and hold those to be universal or human maxims and evaluate the individual’s responsibility therein.
Contrastingly, the theory of consequentialism focuses on the outcomes of actions rather than the innate characteristics of reasoning which results in that action. Consequentialists would argue that the ethical implications of action are derived entirely from its impact. In this view, even if we reduce the individual to be an unthinking and uncaring actor, bound entirely by his capabilities and acting in a sequence of specific causes and effects, those actions can still be evaluated by the results they cause.
An example of this consequentialism in action would be utilitarianism, which subscribes to the view that actions that maximize the well-being of affected individuals are ethically justified—first introduced by Francis Hutcheson in An Inquiry into the Original of Our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue in 1725, arguing that actions are most moral when it brings the most amount of happiness.[4] Utilitarianism exemplifies consequentialist theory by attributing ethical values to persons by evaluating the results of their actions no matter their internal reasoning.
Regardless of which methodology of measure is used, the individual is always responsible, even with the proposition of the prompt.
Nature vs. Nurture
As a result of the growing emphasis on scientific philosophy, many point to the advancements in the neuroscience of the brain to answer questions regarding consciousness and nature vs. nurture. Especially in the late 20th century, when monumental inventions such as the MRI scan allowed humans to observe brain activities at a closer level and the discoveries of various chemical processes that help explain human components like memory and emotions.[5]
Furthermore, there is a broad acceptance of the Darwinian theory of evolution in the scientific community, where an overwhelming majority of the western world believes and integrates it into society as definitive truth.[6] Combined with the genetic theory of DNA and how humans adapt to their environment, the prevalence of these theories has created an empiricist bias on the development of human decisions as merely a sum of our genetic makeup and a sequence of events that occur in the external world—leading to a popularized view that human decisions can be determined by viewing the summation of the inputs to a decision, even if those inputs are the person’s entire genetic makeup and every event which has occurred so far in his life in totality.
However, while modern empiricists would like us to believe that the nature versus nurture argument has been systematically answered, it does not account for the fact that individual beings are not merely passive participants of a sequence of events that occur around them but active participants in shaping the outcome of events. Other advancements in the scientific field of quantum mechanical theory also pointed to the fact that the physical world at the quantum level does not operate in a Classical Newtonian conception of a definitive one-to-one cause and effect but rather on probabilities and uncertainties.[7] Similarly, the process of natural selection in evolutionary theory and genetic inheritance in genetic theory may provide us with a selection of possible outcomes of traits and preferences in offspring given certain parents, but never claims that one outcome will definitively occur out of all the potential outcomes.[8]
These existing theories so far, while convincing when applied to their specific fields of research, are inconclusive in totality to reduce the entire concept of human consciousness into a deterministic understanding where the complexity of decision making is no longer a matter of understanding consciousness but instead amassing enough computational power to reproduce all the factors which contribute to that human decision. In our understanding, human decision-making is not yet proven to be wholly deterministic in the context of whether people can make different choices based on inner motivation unaffected by past events.
Free Will
But even if we take it as a truth that human decisions can be wholly deterministic, using a compatibilist view on the relationship between determinism and free will, human beings are still ultimately responsible for their actions and decisions.
Under the compatibilist view, free will and determinism are mutually compatible without conflicting logically. In different situations, freedom can both exist or be absent, caused not by causal determinism. Causal determinism suggests that everything occurs due to the laws of nature, and everything is simply an effect of the process, meaning that human beings have no absolute control over their actions. A compatibilist does not reject this idea but rather that free will still exists under the deterministic point of view.
Compatibilists argue that freedom does not require the ability to do otherwise, as freedom is nothing more than an individual’s ability to act when there are no obstacles standing in their way. Determinism states that a person is simply a part of the natural laws that determine fate, which many may interpret as that there can be no free will since results are always predestined.
However, the first key argument of compatibilism is that individuals can still act out of their motivation even if the results are set in stone. For example, Thomas Hobbes stated in The Leviathan that a person’s freedom includes that he finds “no stop in doing what he has the will, desire, or inclination to do.”[9] In the views of classical compatibilists, free will is the ability to do as one wants in the absence of any obstacles. As such, it may be mutually compatible that even if results are determined, the prompt to action must come from the individuals.
A common rebuke to compatibilism is that
(1) Free will requires the ability to do otherwise.
(2) If determinism is true, then no agent has the ability to do otherwise.
(3) Therefore, free will requires the falsity of causal determinism. (Source Free Will 2nd)
On these two premises, we can categorize compatibilists into two camps, the first who rejects premise 1 (also known as the “principle of alternative possibilities” or PAP) and those who reject premise 2. Harry Frankfurt developed arguments that rebuke the former premise (the principle of alternative possibilities), in which a person is morally responsible yet could not do otherwise at the time of their action.[10] For example, an economically disadvantaged person might be compelled to steal to feed his family. The outcome of the theft might be pre-determined (for instance, a mob boss acting behind the scenes unbeknownst to the person committing the theft), but that person can still commit his thoughts and decisions to commit the crime.
The first factor to consider is that this undermines the PAP argument. Individuals may very well act in a way that all outside and historical factors would have pre-determined for him to act, yet he still chose to commit to the same decision of their own volition.
The second factor is that personal moral responsibility should be examined based on the decision made by the acting party. Free will is not necessarily required freedom for moral responsibility.
In the classical compatibilist view, free will is simply the ability to act as one wants without obstacles, regardless of whether those desires are dictated by determinism. Regarding modern arguments against compatibilism, we argue that even when individuals seem to be acting without the ability to choose otherwise, they can still act within their own volition and should be held morally responsible. Therefore, determinism and its relationship to free will do not hinder our ability to assign personal moral responsibility.
V. Conclusion
The deterministic assumption to reduce human consciousness into a series of causes and effects, which has prevailed in the modern era of monist materialism, is greatly flawed as the relevant scientific endeavors are still in their infancy stages and often offer contradicting opinions. Furthermore, even taking causal determinism at face value, a compatibilist view allows for the coexistence of free will and, importantly, the continued importance of personal moral responsibility, which falls on the agent committing the actions. As Sartre’s French existentialism’s efforts to derive meaning from “nothingness,” too must we hold individuals responsible for their actions. Therefore, I conclude that we are ultimately responsible for our choices despite the possible external factors.
THE SEARCH FOR IMMORTALITY: THE PATH TO ENLIGHTENMENT OR PRODUCT OF ABSOLUTE POWER OF CHINESE DYANSTIES
William Yixuan Wu
Northwestern University
willwu2027@u.northwestern.edu
ABSTRACT
In classical Chinese Taoist philosophy, the concept of death is embraced to be a natural part of human life, and the pursuit of life is to be enlightened and virtuous. History records that the Chinese emperor who embodied these virtues supplanted others who were morally corrupt or unfit to rule in dynastic cycles. Furthermore, it was believed that all rulers were given power through the mandate of heaven, to govern under the supervision of the gods to be good leaders or risk losing their power. However, the constant obsession with searching for immortality or the elixir of life has indicated that many of these rulers have prioritized their selfish wellbeing over all else, with wide-ranging ramifications for the development of contemporary Chinese culture.
Keywords
Ancient China, Chinese Philosophy, Chinese History, Chinese Religion
INTRODUCTION
In contemporary Chinese society, a saying goes, “even a good death is not as good as a wretched existence.” In other words, there lay a cultural value in the act of not dying and simply living, even if it signifies suffering. It appears as if the subject of death always carries a negative connotation except in the case of a “bai xi shi,” or a cheerful white event where the death results from aging[1]. Therefore, the Chinese seem to believe in prolonging life before death, even if it means a life without fulfillment. In juxtaposition to many western cultures, where there is value to the natural progression of death, such as the belief that death leads to the afterlife, the general Chinese belief seems to be that life is simply more valuable than death. This leads to the question, at what point did the Chinese culture begin to fear death as a threat to their existence instead of embracing it as a natural life stage?
When examining philosophical values deep rooted in Ancient Chinese history, it is found that death was not always a topic of fear. On the contrary, classical Taoist beliefs and other significant schools of thought point to the belief that living a fulfilling life is more important than avoiding the inevitable and living a life with purpose. However, as time progressed and various dynasties rose and fell, the actions of many prominent Chinese emperors led to the rise in the pursuit of eternal life. Specifically, the first emperor Qin Shi Huang was one of the most famous emperors in history for his conquest to find the elixir of life, which led to the prosecution of countless scholars and the burning of literature and records. It would also set a dangerous precedence for many dynastic rulers following, who would also embark on journeys to find a way into immortality.
The actions of these emperors also call into question their intentions and whether they genuinely represented their people in their best interests. In dynastic China, the emperors were believed to be given a Tianming, or a “mandate from heaven” to rule [2]. Essentially, they rule on behalf of the gods, carrying the great responsibility to make good decisions for the people. The popular explanation for why dynasties often changed over the centuries was because they had lost the blessings from heaven.With their sacred responsibility in mind, did the conquest of these emperors truly represent the need of the people? Were they paragons of the heavenly virtues, or did they commit numerous atrocities to extend their own life for selfish reasons?
In this paper, I analyze historical records and books on Ancient Chinese philosophy to argue that prominent Chinese emperors from the Qin dynasty and Ming dynasty were influenced by classical Chinese philosophy, including Confucianism and Taoism, to pursue immortality. The importance is to determine whether Qin Shi Huang’s first pursuit of immortality negatively affected future rulers to commit similar atrocities.
The ancient Chinese philosophical view death and pursuit during life
The pursuit of immortality by Qin Dynasty Emperor Qin Shi Huang and Ming Dynasty Emperor Jia Jing
The analysis of the origins of the belief surrounding death and immortality in prominent ancient Chinese culture, how the roles of the emperor have been changed and altered, and lastly, the actions of various rulers lead to a final verdict on the lasting impact of their actions on the contemporary Chinese culture. The reasoning for choosing the specific two emperors is due to the extensive time difference to display how even as times have changed, the pursuit of immortality remained constant in Ancient China.
The ancient Chinese philosophical view of death and pursuit during life
To popular scholarly belief, ancient Chinese Taoism originated around 300 BCE from the famous writings of Fung Yu Lan, Chuang Tzu, and Lao Tzu for their collections of Taoist writings [3]. While religion has changed over time and is sometimes contradictory in many different materials, there are a few concepts that are permanently fixed. Firstly, the tao means “road” or the “path.” First referenced in the very first chapter of Tao Te Ching, written by Lao Tzu. Next, tao is explained as the way of nature – a fundamental principle underlying the natural world – and harmony for how humans should interact with the universe [4]. Confucianism and Taoism are the most long-standing schools of thought that persisted throughout Chinese history from the unification of China during the Qin dynasty until the end of the Ming dynasty. Both share similar views on life and death.
While Confucianism is its independent school of thought, it shares many beliefs with Taoism. For example, Confucius references the same principle of the tao in The Analects, where he describes the tao as also an entity, where a person may “possess the tao,” or “lack the tao” [5]. These philosophical writings generally believe that the tao is the universe’s flow that keeps the world balanced and ordered. Generally, while interpretation may vary from authors in various eras, the central concept is that Taoism strongly believes in respecting the natural world to bring order to the universe.
The idea of tao is central to the Taoist beliefs and would be further expanded in Chuang Tzu. Importantly it states the importance of allowing the universe to run its course to decide the fate and the path for all. Tao is believed to be “indivisible” and “unchanging.” Therefore, there is no point in trying to take more tao from one place to another[6]. Even when dealing with complex subjects such as death, Chuang Tzu has always believed that death is simply a natural process of life. Chuang Tzu says that all things are one with the tao, so one must realize that “the parts of his body mean no more than so much dust and dirt, and death and life, end and beginning, are no more to him than a succession of day and night.” [7]
In the Tao Te Ching, losing the fear of death was an important step to view it as a natural transformation. Chuang Tzu shows indifference to death and believes that understanding it alleviates human suffering. When Chuang Tzu’s wife died, his friend Hui Shih wanted to console him. Instead of mourning, Chuang Tzu began singing and celebrated the event. Chuang Tzu describes his thoughts in the following:
“When she first died, I certainly mourned just like everyone else! However, I then thought back to her birth and the very roots of her being before she was born. Indeed, not just before she was born but before the time when her body was created. Not just before her body was created but before the very origin of her life’s breath. Out of all of this, through the wonderful mystery of change she was given her life’s breath. Her life’s breath wrought a transformation and she had a body. Her body wrought a transformation and she was born. Nowthere is yet another transformation and she is dead. She is like the four seasons in the way that spring, summer, autumn and winter follow each other. She is now at peace, lying in her chamber, but if I were to sob and cry it would certainly appear that I could not comprehend the ways of destiny. This is why I stopped” [8].
The emphasis on the cycle of change is critical to describe the classical Chinese philosophical beliefs on death, as there is rarely any suggestion of the afterlife or any form of personal immortality. Death was a part of the cycle of change. There is no difference between the living and the dead as mortality only makes sorrow because man cannot free themselves from their categorization of life. However, Chuang Tzu does offer a metaphysical view of the concept of immortality. While there is no physical escape from death in the physical sense, if the man can understand nature’s way and embrace the tao, he lives as a part of the tao. Chuang Tzu says that after death, his left arm becomes a rooster. Man may die, but his essence as part of the universe lives on forever [9].
Mainly, Chuang Tzu describes the “butterfly dream” where one achieves the state of immortal being where they give up their thoughts and fears of death and becomes a part of the universe.
“Once upon a time, I, Chuang Tzu, dreamt that I was a butterfly, flitting around and enjoying myself. I had no idea I was Chuang Tzu. Then suddenly, I woke up and was Chuang Tzu again. But I could not tell, had I been Chuang Tzu dreaming I was a butterfly, or a butterfly dreaming I was now Chuang Tzu? However, there must be some sort of difference between Chuang Tzu and a butterfly! We call this the transformation of things” [10]
The state Chuang Tzu describes is one where he becomes a part of nature and is immortal in spirit to the universe as he feels connected to the universe. In Taoist materials, it was also believed that “spirit immortality” and “longevity” are therefore essential and synonymous in the sense that if one had to fully realize one’s given life span on earth to attain the state of mind where he can fully ascend into this being after his body passes away [11]. Essentially, the body will eventually die no matter what, so physical immortality may be impossible to reach. However, achieving a mental state beyond being will allow them to become immortal in a sense, but extending life makes it better to reach this state.
From the earliest philosophical Taoist writings, most scholars, including Lao Tzu, Chuang Tzu, and Confucius, embraced death as a natural part of life, a way of the tao. As such, they viewed death as a natural process. However, one crucial development of Taoism began through some of the ambiguity of the earlier writings, especially regarding the concept of immorality and the afterlife. Famous French Sinologist Henri Maspero points out that there seemed to be a “corruption” in the Taoist philosophy that began more deviating from the original beliefs on death as a natural cause but became more obsessive over the concept of physical immortality [12].
An important concept that began rising around the same time in 100 BCE was the concept of the Hsien and the introduction of the Hsien Tao (The way of the Hsien). Many scholars speculate that a different branch of belief arose during the Christian Era [13]. Instead of embracing death as a natural process, it strived to achieve one goal – the pursuit of immortality. Many scholars refer to this branch of Taoism as religious Taoism. They believed that true immortality was to become a mythical being named the Hsien, where one is forever ageless and deathless. With the introduction of mythical gods and immortal Hsien god-like deities, this branch gradually combined Buddhist practices to become a more religious belief. Many scholars believe that religious Taoism was a separate branch of belief that became fused with philosophical Taoism, as seen by its conflicting beliefs on how to live life and pursue immortality. Philosophical Taoism saw death as a natural event, whereas religious Taoism believed in pursuing physical immortality to stop death. No mentions of any methods of immortality or Hsien existed until the Qin dynasty, and many believe these were not a part of the original Taoist beliefs. [14]. Nonetheless, the two branches eventually became one common belief.
An essential characteristic of the development of the religiosity beliefs is the evolution of many practices aimed at achieving immortality—namely, the popularization of Taoist alchemy. There are two forms of alchemy, external alchemy, which includes breathing techniques, sexual practices, and production of the “elixir of immortality,” and internal alchemy, which includes visualization, dieting, and other self-control practices. There are extensive records of these practices from the 3rd to 6th centuries. For example, according to the “Book of the Nine Elixirs,” a collection of Taoist alchemy written by Taoist Anthropology professor Fabrizio Pregadio at the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, many believed that “When a man ingests the ‘divine elixirs,’ he becomes a divine immortal and transcends the generation of mortals [15]. Among these elixirs were various herbs, medicines, and metals such as gold, mercury, and jade. Scholars often attribute Lao Tzu and Zhang Daoling as the first creators of the tradition to seek immortality through alchemy.
Thus, ultimately while Taoist philosophers initially believed that death is inevitable and that living a great life of virtues will lead to an immortal spirit with the tao, the Taoist view on death gradually evolved and combined religious beliefs of immortal Hsien, leading to methods of alchemy to try and extend one’s life to become physically immortal.
The pursuit of immortality by emperor Qin Shi Huang and Jia Jing
With the often-contrasting views on immortality in Taoist philosophy, Chinese emperors have often used different interpretations to justify their pursuit of immortality. I believe that Chinese emperors misappropriated Confucianism and Taoism, using legalism to reshape how they ruled with absolute power over their people.
The mystique of the Chinese emperors has always originated from a unique position within Chinese society, where they are both made the leaders of the country and characters of traditional worshipping. In Ancient China, the ruler was the head of the royal family, the state, the judiciary, and the religious hierarchy, which means they were treated with high reverence. The title of tianzi, or the “son of heaven,” originated from King Wen of the Zhou in 1050 BCE, who claimed that he and his ancestors were given the right to govern by the heavens [16]. However, it does not mean that the emperors were inherently chosen to have an unchallengeable right to govern. Instead, they were given rights to rule on behalf of the gods and a great responsibility to make good decisions for the people instead of their selfish needs.
Many Chinese sayings believed that China would suffer great natural disasters, such as droughts and floods, and he would lose his right to govern if the ruler did not represent the people properly. Therefore, many Confucian scholars argued that rulers had to answer to the people; in turn, the people can rightfully hold their rulers accountable. In the Taoist school of thought, it was also believed that if a ruler had lost their balance and harmony with the natural world, they would lose their divine favor. This was often why when rulers were dethroned and dynasties changed, it was believed that it was in the will of the heavens. One particular saying recorded by Hsun Tzu summarizes their belief at the time:
“The prince is the boat, the common people are the water. The water can support the boat, or the water can capsize the boat” [17].
The ideals of the mandate from heaven were deeply rooted in the decision-making of emperors in all dynasties, where few emperors could afford to ignore the collective moral expectations of their people. Therefore, it was of the utmost importance for the role of the Chinese emperor to govern with great care towards following the will of his people and acting as a paragon of traditional virtues. Furthermore, it was vital for them to preserve society’s morality while also implementing the most significant policies to benefit their people. Otherwise, they would lose their favor with the gods and heaven. With these contexts in mind, an analysis of actions by various Chinese emperors will show that while these morals were followed, many often prioritized their selfish pursuits over the good of the people.
Qin Shi Huang is known as the first federal emperor in ancient Chinese. His achievements are undeniable. He changed the traditional political system and unified China with multiple ethnic groups, laying the foundation for the feudal kingdoms for hundreds of years. However, he was not the perfect leader. In the shiji, written by grand historian Sima Qian, he notes numerous atrocities Qin Shi Huang committed to pursuing his own beliefs of immortality. Most importantly, Qin Shi Huang was responsible for the prosecution of scholars and burning of Confucian books, establishing legalism as the prominent religion, and various attempts at creating immortality.
In shiji, Sima Qian describes Qin Shi Huang as a ruthless leader who used various tactics to solidify his power as a leader and attempted to assimilate his beliefs to the rest of the public. Many of his policies focused on applying violence to eradicate those with different views and condemned Qin Shi Huang’s actions towards prosecuting scholars and restricting Confucian religious rituals [18]. Many scholars believe that Qin Shi Huang punished these scholars not because he disapproved of their beliefs but because he wanted to establish his dynasty and family as the most potent entities in China.
In shiji, it was recorded that one of Qin Shi Huang’s chancellors Li said that “I, your servant, propose that all historians’ records other than those of Qin’s be burned. With the exception of the academics whose duty includes possessing books, if anyone under heaven has copies of the Shi Jing [Classic of Poetry], the Shujing [Classic of History], or the writings of the hundred schools of philosophy, they shall deliver them (the books) to the governor or the commandant for burning. Anyone who dares to discuss the Shi Jing or the Classic of History shall be publicly executed” [19].
Not only did he punish opposing beliefs, but he also created a mandate for the rise of legalist ideologies. Legalism is often compared to modern social sciences because it created a system of guidelines on how a country should be run. Generally, they believed that power should be devoid of moral considerations and that there needs to be a powerful state with a solid army to rule the land [20]. It is speculated that under this mindset, Qin Shi Huang authorized the prosecution of scholars to establish peace and order in his state.
Han Feizi is an essential piece of Chinese philosophy text written by Han Fei, laying the foundations for legalism’s philosophical studies. It is foundational to Qin Shi Huang’s beliefs and the Qin Dynasty’s foundations. It can be said that although the school of thought of legalism is based on Taoist teachings and Confucian ideals, after the Qin dynasty, the Confucian ideals of how to organize society, such as ruling without laws, were never realized. Nevertheless, legalism was so influential during Qin Shi Huang’s reign that legalism became how numerous subsequent dynasties arranged their civil and administrative structures and paved the justifications for the emperor’s rule.
For example, in chapter thirteen of Han Feizi, he says:
“The sage who makes laws in the state is always acting contrary to the prevailing opinions of the age, but is in accord with Tao (道) and Teh (德)” (聖人為法國者，必逆於世，而順於道德) [21][22].
Han Fei establishes the difference between Tao and De. In contrast, his conceptualization of tao is harmonious with the cosmos (the same as Taoism). Still, de or the way to act is rendered the ability to create laws and means of governance to the enlightened ruler. Established by the school of legalism explicitly establishes the enlightened ruler’s ability to create these rules of governance in accordance with the tao that runs contrary to the prevailing opinions of the time. Han Fei establishes the exclusive rights of the ruler of China to create laws that go against the public and the ability to interpret Taoism as they wish. There are two ways to interpret this passage in the legalist belief that either the enlightened ruler must be the one who interprets the tao and makes it into the rules of governance even if it is contrary to the people’s beliefs. The second way is that legalism gives the ruler absolute power to create any law even if it goes against common beliefs of the tao, essentially granting them absolute power to not only redefine tao but also create any laws as he intends.
Qin Shi Huang used the legalist interpretation of power to justify committing countless selfish acts in pursuit of immortality. Legalism ultimately justified his conduct as emperor as he was the ultimate authority of both philosophy and law. Many sources have pointed to the fact that Qin Shi Huang used his unprecedented state power to pursue immortality, which led to his downfall. Late in his life, Qin Shi Huang feared death and desperately sought the fabled elixir of life in Taoist belief despite him banning and condemning many traditional Taoist practices. In one case, he attempted to find the legendary island of Mount Penglai, which is believed to possess the elixir of life. As a result, he sent an expedition force with hundreds of men on ships, who never returned, perhaps since they may be executed for their failures [23].
He would frequently execute scholars to find those with magical powers returning to life after death. He believed that if they had powers of immortality, they were able to resurrect themselves after death[24]. He was often a victim of fraudulent alchemists who claimed to have found the elixir of life. One time, after discovering that two alchemists had deceived him, he ordered 460 scholars to be buried alive at Xianyang. The event was detailed in chapter 6 of the shiji [25]. It was alleged that one of the major contributing factors to Qin Shi Huang’s short reign as an emperor, as he died at the age of 49, was due to alchemical elixir poisoning from consuming mercury pills made by his physicians [26]. Therefore, it is evident that Qin Shi Huang often used his immense power to seek immortality and set a dangerous precedence for future emperors. The importance of the manifestation of legalism in the Qin dynasty was that it justified the brutal rules of Qin Shi Huang and his quest for immortality.
Even after the fall of the Qin dynasty, legalism would prevail as the foundational principle for future dynasties. Despite efforts by the Han dynasty to ban and discredit the teachings of legalism, subsequent emperors of numerous dynasties would use the conceptualization of the absolute monarch outlined in legalism to empower their rule and justify their behaviors. From the period between the Qin dynasty and the Ming dynasty, many other emperors have also sought the elixir of life. This includes emperor Wu of the Han dynasty and five emperors of Tang dynasties who were recorded to have died from alchemical poisoning[27]. Thus, even with thousands of years of academic and scientific progress, the various emperors of China never stopped their pursuit. One prominent example of these emperors is the actions of emperor Jia Jing of the Ming dynasty. He ruled China from 1521 to 1567, more than a thousand years after Qin Shi Huang. Like many of his predecessors, Jia Jing was obsessed with the mythical Taoist concept of immortality and used alchemy.
Jia Jing’s first pursuits of immortality began as an interest in rituals and practices to increase fertility. As early as 1523, many court officials complained that he would regularly miss lessons because he was too focused on making offerings at Taoist ceremonies. However, his initial interest quickly dove into an obsession as he was introduced to an influential Taoist master named Yiian Chieh, who had won favor with him and began introducing him to methods of alchemy, and the idea of the elixir of immortality. Finally, in September 1540, the emperor informed the court that he intended to seclude himself for several years to pursue immortality. When an official pointed out that it was nonsense, he was executed. [28].
The emperor would also begin to create his elixir of life. Notably, he regularly digested something called the “red lead,” a substance made from the menstrual blood of female virgins. He would also regularly collect young girls to be tormented sexually. This would eventually lead to an event named palace plot of renyin year, where a group of palace women attempted to strangle him but failed due to the years of abuse [29]. However, instead of treating it as a warning, the emperor continued his pursuit of immortality. In 1552 he selected 800 girls between the age of eight and fourteen for palace sexual services, and in 1555, he selected 180 more, all virgins under the age of ten, to refine his elixir. Eventually, Jia Jing passed away in 1567, noted by historians as possibly due to mercury overdose [30].
Like the reign of Qin Shi Huang, both emperors were obsessed with the concept of physical immortality. As a result, they often abused their people and disregarded the morality given by the mandate of heaven. As exemplified by their frequent prosecution of scholars, unjust executions of any opposition, and the many instances of violent and unethical practices to prolong their lives. Thus, it is evident that while these leaders were given the mandate to be spiritual leaders that exemplified traditional virtues, they were obsessed with their wellbeing and pursued immortality to benefit themselves.
Ultimately, the emperors used legalism to justify their search for immortality despite it being a bastardization of the concept of enlightenment. It is evident that through their relentless searching for immortality, they have impacted Chinese culture by implanting the idea that an immortal being is more important than living a virtuous life. Instead of using their power correctly, various leaders often disregarded their heaven-given responsibilities and justified atrocities with legalist beliefs to solidify their absolute power.
CONCLUSION
From the beginnings of classical Chinese philosophy embodied through the writings of Taoist philosophers, the concept of morality was outlined as a part of the cycle of life and death and must be regarded with indifference as a natural transformation. One strives in life to achieve a connection to the universe. However, Chinese emperors who clothed themselves with the appearance of virtues and authority from heaven often disregarded their responsibilities and rules to pursue physical immortality through immoral and unethical means. This blatant hypocrisy of the Chinese ruling class demonstrates a dynamic in Chinese culture where powerful rulers often disregard their people’s wellbeing, misappropriate traditional beliefs, and abuse their power to prolong their life span.
Yu Xu. “Death and Dying in the Chinese Culture: Implications for Health Care Practice.” Sage Journals, August 1, 2007. https://doi.org/10.1177/1084822307301306.
Former Secretary General of the United Nations, Kofi Annan, once said “Young people should be at the forefront of global change and innovation.”[1] In the contemporary era, young people and activists are given more power than ever in the past. Great youth leaders like Greta Thunberg and Malala Yousafzai are defining the Gen Z generation as courageous young people with visions to reshape the world on the climate, economic, and social fronts. However, in recent years, these activists have been discredited publicly, their reputations tarnished by smear campaigns, and young individuals are starting to turn away from confronting the complexities of the world. Thus, I believe the greatest challenge facing teens in the world today is youth disenfranchisement with civil processes around the world, turning instead to self-expression over collectivist action. Three leading contributors to this phenomenon are the overwhelming complexity of a globalizing world, socio-economic factors, and the modern mass media. Identifying the root causal relations behind the phenomenon may be possible to develop potential solutions.
Alexei Yurchak, a professor of anthropology at UC Berkeley, observed that everyone in the Soviet Union knew the systems were failing during its collapse. Still, no one could imagine an alternative to the status quo, and politicians and citizens alike resigned to maintaining the delusional pretense of a functioning society. Over time, a fake reality became normalized to the extent that it became accepted as the reality. He coined this phenomenon “hypernormalization” in his 2005 book, Everything was Forever.[2] As the era of globalization began with the introduction of digital technology and globalized supply chains and commerce, the world became increasingly complex at a frightening speed. Everything we knew about the old-world order seemed to fade away, with countries undergoing regime change, entire trades and professions rendered obsolete by innovations, and livelihoods and power structures often uprooted by civil movements. Young adults no longer contend only with the local and immediate challenges but are forced to compete in a new global academic and employment marketplace. While globalization has brought new opportunities and possibilities, unless we are adequately equipped to comprehend and internalize new complexities, it is simply overwhelming. Rather than investing time and resources for no appreciable personal gain to understand the modern world, many adolescents and young adults instead turn to a simplified view of the world. A “hypernormalized” narrative ran by the “big business interests” and “those who are in charge,” where meaningful change is impossible, and those who try to affect positive social change are labeled as naive or denounced as having a special interest agenda.
The socio-economic benefits of globalization were also not distributed evenly, as the wealthy and powerful entrenched their positions further, creating a greater wealth gap in many parts of the world. The 2022 Russian-Ukrainian War, the 2008 subprime mortgage crisis, the Covid-19 pandemic, and the ongoing China-US trade war, among many other global issues, have contributed to an economic downturn that is also disproportionately hurting young adults. Young adults face the highest level of employment in almost every economy as corporations continue to engage in a race-to-the-bottom mentality in their hiring practices and demand industry-specific experience for entry-level positions.[3] This phenomenon, coupled with the reduction of funding for public education in many countries, created a desperate scenario for Gen Z, who see unaffordable properties and employment marketplaces that devalues them. Economic downturns create discontent and rot away the motivation for young people to engage with the civic process. All around the world, the rise of authoritarian political movements and parties relies on blaming these socio-economic woes on boogeymen and simple solutions, as we’ve seen with the extremist movements in the US, Eastern Europe, and in the reasoning given by Putin for Russia’s invasion of Ukraine (“To de-Nazify Ukraine”).[4] Rational political discourse is sidelined for extremist “them or us” and “good or evil” positions, driving away young adults’ engagement with the civil process.
In all this, media and telecommunication platforms should have played a vital role in filtering and disseminating the truths with their professional and journalistic ethics. Instead, the mixture of media sensationalism and corporate greed created a landscape filled with clickbait, fake news, and partisan reporting, blurring the difference between truth and lies. Modern media has brought the horrors of the world in front of young adults, problems which had been previously the domain of specialists and politicians (such as climate change and civil strife) and tasked them with the moral obligation to find solutions. Partisan reporting and conspiracy theory movements capitalize on the historically low trust in media companies as public institutions to sell them simplicity and security. On social media platforms, disinformation echo chambers form to decrease the willingness to engage with other opinions and make compromises, allowing more people to fall into extremist rabbit holes and change the trajectory of their whole life for the worse. The recent rise and fall of media figures such as Alex Jones and Andrew Tate are examples of profiteers that preyed on vulnerable young adults who doesn’t know where to look for factual information to base their decisions. Now more than ever, media professionals must help us interpret and understand the world.
I believe that to fundamentally address the complexities of the world, young adults must be willing to confront it. For that to occur, we must incentivize thoughtful civics behavior. As a part of Gen Z, we need to empower educators and intellectuals the platforms to fight against waves of disinformation and radicalization. We must engage in tough conversations about the limitations of free speech regarding social media companies and reexamine the legal framework to hold them responsible for disseminating misleading falsehoods. With what social mechanics and movements can we hope to achieve these goals? I certainly don’t have the answers today, but I’m not afraid to confront the complexities of the modern world. I hope that as we motivate other young people, we can find a solution together.
William Wu 